Prisoners of Geography

Elliott & Thompson Ltd

by Tim Marshall

This blog highlights the main reasons explored by Marshall as hindering Africa’s development through the lens of geography. It explores how Africa’s rivers, deserts, diverse terrains, and colonial legacies have shaped trade, communication, political stability, and economic growth across the continent.

Water Access, Rivers, Ports and Trade

Africa’s unnavigable rivers and lack of deepsea water ports inhibit the region from economic prosperity. Africa’s rivers are often dotted with waterfalls and rapids, which are often unlinked and unconnected. This limits options for internal trade, a feat which has the harshest impacts on landlocked countries.With very few natural deep-water ports, the region’s ability to trade internationally through this inexpensive mode of transport is limited.

Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam

Water bodies across Africa, compounded by the impact of climate change, also have the potential to threaten water security, agricultural production, and health. Marshall employs the example of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) built on the upper reaches of the Nile basin. The dam has the potential to reduce water flow to downstream countries like Sudan and Egypt, creating tensions that some fear could escalate into armed conflict.

Diverse Terrains, Regional Isolation, and Communication Challenges

The African region is characterised by four terrains; the Sahara desert, the Sahel, jungles and the Mediterranean-like northern coast. Marshall suggests that the Sahara acts as a barrier between the north and the south of Africa. Not only has the division created a distinct cultural difference, it inhibits trade and interaction, such as the flow of ideas and technology, leaving sub-Saharan Africa on a different developmental trajectory. This obstacle has also proven a constraint for southern European nations, limiting their ability to trade deep into Africa.

The Sahel and dense jungle can make movement across these terrains difficult. Prohibiting communication, this impacts the region’s ability to maintain internal cohesion and economic integration. The presence of tropical climates foster diseases such as malaria and yellow fever, putting immense pressure on healthcare systems and devastating communities. Combined with the presence of dangerous wildlife, travel around the region is troubled from many angles.

Moreover, Africa is home to a vast array of ethnicities and languages. Its geography has kept many communities isolated, and coupled with the presence of distinct languages, this has historically limited communication between groups.

Colonial Borders and Fragmented Societies

European powers divided up Africa’s borders with little regard for existing ethnic, cultural or linguistic realities as well as natural geographic boundaries. These arbitrary lines forced disparate groups into single nations, and split others up, sowing the seeds for future conflict. Many of the pastoralist communities in Africa do not see borders, as they move with the seasons to find grazing land. This can create tensions with some sedentary communities seeing their nation-state as being infringed upon. 

Resource Wealth and Exploitation

Africa is rich in natural resources. The continent hosts gold, diamonds, cobalt, crude oil, natural gas, timber, and lithium to name a few. However, due to colonial histories, wealth has been extracted rather than utilized by local governments to build strong, resilient economies. 

It could be said that Chinese investment in recent decades represents a reincarnation of this system. For example, China purchases approximately half of the Democratic Republic of Congo’s exports, yet the country sees limited economic benefits.

Colonial Legacies and Structural Weaknesses

Colonialist settlers would typically land and reside near the coast, taking resources, without expanding internally and investing in infrastructure, technology, and knowledge-sharing. Institutions that were built by colonialists were often weak, ill-structured and unsuitable for the communities they were meant to serve. As a result, upon independence, African nations have been forced to govern within structures that were unfit for purpose, alongside fragmented territories.

Final Thoughts

Marshall’s Africa chapter lays out a convincing geographical explanation of the continent’s development history, trajectory, and future. Namely, its rivers, deserts, and drylands have shaped trajectories and limited decisions. Understanding these geographic realities helps explain why certain patterns of trade, settlement, and conflict persist. Moreover, the book also sheds light on why strategies to foster economic growth must work within, rather than against, the continent’s physical and historical landscapes.